Cryptography

Studies of blockchain architectures often start with the consensus algorithms and implicitly assume that information flows perfectly through the underlying peer-to-peer network, and peer discovery is sound and fully decentralized. In practice this is not always the case. A few years ago, a team of researchers looked at the Bitcoin1…

Last month I was lucky enough to attend Eurocrypt 2023, which took place in Lyon, France. It was my first chance to attend an academic cryptography conference and the experience sat somewhere in between the familiar cryptography of the Real World Crypto conference and the abstract world of black holes…

You may have heard of RSA (b. 1977), but have you heard of its cousin, Paillier (b. 1999)? In this post, we provide a close look at the Paillier homomorphic encryption scheme [Paillier1999], what it offers, how it’s used in complex protocols, and how to implement it securely. Contents RSA…

This blog post presents a whirlwind overview of Verifiable Random Functions (VRFs) as used by several leading-edge blockchains, and shows how a very interesting and recently found implementation oversight causes the VRF’s assurance of uniqueness to fall apart. As VRFs are commonly used for selecting blockchain consensus voting committees, this…

The annual Real World Cryptography Conference organized by the IACR recently took place in Tokyo, Japan. On top of 3 days of excellent talks, RWC was preceded by the 2nd annual FHE.org Conference and the Real World Post-Quantum Cryptography Workshop and followed by the High Assurance Crypto Software Workshop. Nearly…

This executable blog post is the third in a series related to machine learning and explores code generation from a 16 billion parameter large language model (LLM). After a brief look under the hood at the LLM structure and parameter allocation, we generate a variety of Python functions and make…

In August 2022, Solana Foundation engaged NCC Group to conduct a security assessment of the ZK-Token SDK, a collection of open-source functions and types that implement the core cryptographic functionalities of the Solana Program Library (SPL) Confidential Token extension. These functionalities are homomorphic encryption and associated proofs used to demonstrate…

The Pedersen hash function has gained popularity due to its efficiency in the arithmetic circuits used in zero-knowledge proof systems. Hash functions are a crucial primitive in cryptography, and zero-knowledge proof systems often make heavy use of them, for example when computing Merkle tree roots and paths. Instead of being…

There is a specific type of cryptographic transformation that arises in storage-oriented blockchains. The transformation is a “slowable” 1-1 mapping which does not involve any secrets and is tradeoff-resistant in the following sense: it should not be possible to partially compute the function, store a fraction of the function’s state…

This blog post is the second in a series related to machine learning, and demonstrates exactly how a data poisoning attack might work to insert a backdoor into a facial authentication system. The simplified system has similarities to that which the TSA is running a proof of concept trial at the Detroit…

Hello and welcome to NCC Group’s Cryptopals guided tour! This post is the second in a series of eight installments (previously) covering the solutions to the Cryptopals Crypto Challenges. For those who don’t know, Cryptopals is a series of eight sets of challenges covering common cryptographic constructs and common attacks…

Professor Ron Rivest observed the close relationship between cryptography and machine learning at the ASIACRYPT conference back in 1991. Cross-fertilization of common notions, such as integrity, privacy, confidentiality and authenticity, have only grown in the following three decades as these fields have become more central to our everyday lives. This blog…

First things first: there is now a specification for the jq255e and jq255s elliptic curves; it is published on the C2SP initiative and is formally in (draft) version 0.0.1: https://github.com/C2SP/C2SP/blob/main/jq255.md The jq255e and jq255s groups are prime-order groups appropriate for building cryptographic protocols, and based on elliptic curves. These curves…

In June 2022, IOV Labs engaged NCC Group to perform a review of powHSM. Per the project documentation: “Its main role is to safekeep and prevent the unauthorized usage of each of the powPeg’s members’ private keys. powHSM is implemented as a pair of applications for the Ledger Nano S, namely…

During the summer of 2022, Penumbra Labs, Inc. engaged NCC Group to conduct a cryptographic security assessment of two items: (i) the specification and two implementations of the decaf377 group, and (ii) a methodology and implementation of parameter generation for the Poseidon hash function. Decaf377 is a prime-order group obtained…

Introduction NCC Group Cryptography Services team assessed security aspects of several implementations of the QUIC protocol. During the course of their reviews, the team found a number of recurrent cryptography side channel findings of arguably negligible privacy risk to users, across these implementations. However, repetition in itself makes these findings…

Editor’s note: since the publication of this blog post, an expanded and more technical discussion of the implementation process has been written, and is available on eprint: https://eprint.iacr.org/2022/1283. Introduction Last weekend (July 30th) a truly incredible piece of mathematical/cryptanalysis research was put onto eprint. Wouter Castryck and Thomas Decru of KU…

Last week, NIST announced some algorithms selected for standardization as part of their Post-Quantum Cryptography project. This is a good opportunity to recall the history of this process, observe its current state, and comment on the selected algorithms. It is important to remember that the process is not finished: round…

This blog post discusses two erroneous computation patterns in Golang. By erroneous computation we mean simply that given certain input, a computer program with certain state returns incorrect output or enters an incorrect state.

In March 2022, DFINITY engaged NCC Group to conduct a security and cryptography review of a threshold ECDSA implementation, which follows a novel approach described in the reference paper entitled “Design and analysis of a distributed ECDSA signing service” and available on the IACR ePrint archive at https://eprint.iacr.org/2022/506. The threshold ECDSA…

In April and May 2022, NCC Group Cryptography Services engaged in a security and cryptography assessment reviewing Microsoft’s contributions to the go-cose library, a Go library implementing signing and verification for CBOR Object Signing and Encryption (COSE), as specified in RFC 8152. This library focuses on a minimal feature set to enable…

The IACR’s annual Real World Cryptography (RWC) conference took place in Amsterdam a few weeks ago. It remains the best venue for highlights of cryptographic constructions and attacks for the real world. While the conference was fully remote last year, this year it was a 3-day hybrid event, live-streamed from…

The use of pairings in cryptography began in 1993, when an algorithm developed by Menezes, Okamoto and Vanstone, now known as the MOV-attack, described a sub-exponential algorithm for solving the discrete logarithm problem for supersingular elliptic curves. It wasn’t until the following decade that efficient pairing-based algorithms were used constructively…

During October 2021, O(1) Labs engaged NCC Group’s Cryptography Services team to conduct a cryptography and implementation review of selected components within the main source code repository for the Mina project. Mina implements a cryptocurrency with a lightweight and constant-sized blockchain, where the code is primarily written in OCaml. The…

In this post we present a newly published key encapsulation mechanism (KEM) called BAT. It is a post-quantum algorithm, using NTRU lattices, and its main advantages are that it is both small and fast. The paper was accepted by TCHES (it should appear in volume 2022, issue 2) and is…

In June 2021, WhatsApp engaged NCC Group to conduct a security assessment of the ‘opaque-ke’ library, an open source Rust implementation of the OPAQUE password authenticated key exchange protocol. The protocol is designed to allow password-based authentication in such a way that a server does not actually learn the plaintext…

Hello and welcome to NCC Group’s Cryptopals guided tour! This post is the first in a series of eight installments covering the solutions to the Cryptopals Crypto Challenges. These have been a long time coming, and we’re excited to finally start bringing them to you. For those who don’t know,…

During the summer of 2021, Horizen Labs engaged NCC Group to conduct a cryptography review of Zendoo protocol’s proof verifier. This system generates and verifies modified Marlin proofs with a polynomial commitment scheme based on the hardness of the discrete logarithm problem in prime-order groups. The system also provides optimized…

Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC) has become the de facto standard for protecting modern communications. ECC is widely used to perform asymmetric cryptography operations, such as to establish shared secrets or for digital signatures. However, insufficient validation of public keys and parameters is still a frequent cause of confusion, leading to…

Summary Stark Bank is a financial technology company that provides services to simplify and automate digital banking, by providing APIs to perform operations such as payments and transfers. In addition, Stark Bank maintains a number of cryptographic libraries to perform cryptographic signing and verification. These popular libraries are meant to…

In March 2021, Electric Coin Co. engaged NCC Group to perform a review of the upcoming network protocol upgrade NU5 to the Zcash protocol (codenamed “Orchard”). The review was to be performed over multiple phases: first, the specification document changes and the relevant ZIPs, then, in June 2021, the implementation…

During the summer of 2021, WhatsApp engaged NCC Group’s Cryptography Services team to conduct an independent security assessment of its End-to-End Encrypted Backups project. End-to-End Encrypted Backups is an hardware security module (HSM) based key vault solution that aims to primarily support encrypted backup of WhatsApp user data. This assessment…

Outline 1. Introduction 2. How does MT19937 PRNG work? 3. Using Neural Networks to model the MT19937 PRNG 3.1 Using NN for State Twisting 3.1.1 Data Preparation 3.1.2 Neural Network Model Design 3.1.3 Optimizing the NN Inputs 3.1.4 Model Results 3.1.5 Model Deep Dive 3.1.5.1 Model First Layer Connections 3.1.5.2 The…

Outline 1. Introduction 2. How does xorshift128 PRNG work? 3. Neural Networks and XOR gates 4. Using Neural Networks to model the xorshift128 PRNG 4.1 Neural Network Model Design 4.2 Model Results 4.3 Model Deep Dive 5. Creating a machine-learning-resistant version of xorshift128 6. Conclusion 1. Introduction This blog post proposes…

We present here a new construction which has no real immediate usefulness, but is a good illustration of a fundamental concept of cryptography, namely that there is a great difference between knowing that some mathematical object exists, and being able to build it in practice. Thus, this construction can be…

This is the second blog post in a new code-centric series about selected optimizations found in pairing-based cryptography. Pairing operations are foundational to the BLS Signatures central to Ethereum 2.0, the zero-knowledge arguments underpinning Filecoin, and a wide variety of other emerging applications. While my prior blog series, “Pairing over…

This month, members of NCC Group will be presenting their work at the following conferences: Javed Samuel, “Overview of Open-Source Cryptography Vulnerabilities”, to be presented at the International Cryptographic Module Conference 2021 (Virtual – Sept 3 2021) Robert Seacord, “Secure Coding”, to be presented at Auto ISAC Analysts (Virtual –…

The increased adoption of financial blockchains has fueled a lot of cryptography research in recent years. One area of high interest is transaction confidentiality which requires hiding investors’ account balances and transaction amounts, while enforcing compliance rules and performing validity checks on all activities. This blog post will look at…

This is the first blog post in a new code-centric series about selected optimizations found in pairing-based cryptography. Pairing operations are foundational to the BLS Signatures [1] central to Ethereum 2.0, zero-knowledge arguments central to Zcash and Filecoin [2], and a wide variety of other emerging applications. A prior blog…

During April 2021, Protocol Labs engaged NCC Group’s Cryptography Services team to conduct a cryptography and implementation review of the Groth16 proof aggregation functionality in the bellperson and two other related GitHub repositories. This code utilizes inner product arguments to efficiently aggregate existing Groth16 proofs while re-using existing powers of…

This is a write-up of the classic padding oracle attack on CBC-mode block ciphers. If you’ve done the Cryptopals cryptography challenges, you’ll remember it as challenge 17. This is a famous and elegant attack. With it, we will see how even a small data leak (in this case, the presence…

We provide a technical introduction on how to leverage the Z3 Theorem Prover to reason about the correctness of cryptographic software, protocols and otherwise, and to identify potential security vulnerabilities. We cover two distinct use cases: modeling and analysis of an algorithm documented in an old version of the QUIC…

Earlier this month, our Cryptography Services team got together and attended (virtually) the IACR’s annual Real World Cryptography (RWC) conference. RWC is a fantastic venue for the latest results in real world cryptography from industry and academia. Holding this conference virtually inevitably introduced some changes: to accommodate as many time…

In October 2020, Supranational, Protocol Labs and the Ethereum Foundation engaged NCC Group’s Cryptography Services team to conduct a cryptographic implementation review of the BLST library. This library implements support for the draft IETF specifications on Hashing to Elliptic Curves and BLS Signatures. The latter specification uses advanced cryptographic-pairing operations…

This post is about some new (or sort of new) elliptic curves for use in cryptographic protocols. They were made public in mid-December 2020, on a dedicated Web site: https://doubleodd.group/ There is also a complete whitepaper, full of mathematical demonstrations, and several implementations. Oh noes, more curves! Will this never…

In May 2020, Protocol Labs engaged NCC Group’s Cryptography Services team to conduct a cryptography review of multiple Filecoin code repositories. Filecoin is a decentralized storage and content distribution network developed by Protocol Labs. These repositories implement finite field and group arithmetic, cryptographic pairings, SHA2 via intrinsics, BLS signatures and…

Elliptic curves are commonly used to implement asymmetric cryptographic operations such as key exchange and signatures. These operations are used in many places, in particular to initiate secure network connections within protocols such as TLS and Noise. However, they are relatively expensive in terms of computing resources, especially for low-end…

In June 2020, the Electric Coin Company engaged NCC Group to conduct a security review of the six Zcash Improvement Proposals (ZIPs) that constitute the core of the upcoming Canopy (https://z.cash/upgrade/canopy/) upgrade (also called “NU4”) to the Zcash network. This upgrade coincides with the first Zcash halving and will initiate…

wolfSSL is a C-language-based SSL/TLS library targeted at IoT, embedded, and RTOS environments. wolfSSL incorrectly implements the TLS 1.3 client state machine. This allows attackers in a privileged network position to completely impersonate any TLS 1.3 servers and read or modify potentially sensitive information between clients using the wolfSSL library…

This is the last of three code-centric blog posts on pairing based cryptography. Support for these operations in an Ethereum precompiled contract has been proposed [1], and support for a related pairing configuration in precompiled contracts is already in operation [2, 3]. The first post [4] covered modular arithmetic, finite…

During the spring of 2020, Qredo engaged NCC Group Cryptography Services to conduct a security assessment of the Apache Milagro MPC library. This library implements the primitives necessary to instantiate the multi-party ECDSA signature scheme provided in Gennaro and Goldfeder’s Fast Multiparty Threshold ECDSA with Fast Trustless Setup. This assessment…

This is the second of three code-centric blog posts on pairing based cryptography. The first post [1] covered modular arithmetic, finite fields, the embedding degree, and presented an implementation of a 12-degree prime extension field tower. The series will ultimately conclude with a detailed review of the popular BLS12-381 pairing…

This is the first of three code-centric blog posts on pairing based cryptography. The series will ultimately conclude with a detailed review of the popular BLS12-381 pairing operations found in a variety of applications such as BLS signatures [1]. Support for these operations in an Ethereum precompiled contract has been…

The secure generation of parameters for zk-SNARKs is a crucial step in the trustworthiness of the resulting proof system. By highlighting some potential pitfalls and important security considerations of these implementations, NCC Group hopes to provide helpful pointers to all implementers and avoid the introduction of vulnerabilities detrimental to the…

During the spring of 2020, O(1) Labs engaged NCC Group to conduct a cryptographic assessment of Coda Protocol. This cryptocurrency leverages state-of-the art cryptographic constructions to provide traditional cryptocurrency applications with a more lightweight blockchain. This assessment focused on the core cryptographic primitives as well as the overlaid protocol. The…

This post is about elliptic curves as they are used in cryptography, in particular for signatures. There are many ways to define specific elliptic curves that strive to offer a good balance between security and performance; here, I am talking about specific contributions of mine: a new curve definition, and…

On April 10, Apple and Google announced1, 2 that they were joining forces in an effort to help reduce the spread of COVID-19. Their solution leverages Bluetooth technology to trace interactions between individuals. This principle is known as contact tracing and public health agencies are heavily relying on it to…

Verifiable Random Functions (VRFs) have recently seen a strong surge in popularity due to their usefulness in blockchain applications. Earlier I wrote about what VRFs are, where they can be used, and a few dozen things to consider when reviewing them. In this follow-on blog post, I am pleased to…

By Aleksandar Kircanski and Terence Tarvis A good amount of effort has been dedicated to surveying and systematizing Ethereum smart contract security bug classes. There is, however, a gap in literature when it comes to surveying implementation-level security bugs that commonly occur in basic PoW blockchain node implementations, discovered during…

Running smart contracts in a Trusted Execution Environment (TEE) such as Intel Software Guard Extensions (SGX) to preserve the confidentiality of blockchain transactions is a novel and not widely understood technique. In this blog post, we point out several bug classes that we observed in confidential smart contract designs and…

In December 2019, MobileCoin engaged NCC Group to conduct a review of the AES/GCM and ChaCha20+Poly1305 implementations provided by the RustCrypto/AEADs crates. The intended usage context of these crates includes SGX enclaves, making timing-related side channel attacks relevant to this assessment. Two consultants provided five person-days of effort. The Public…

While Verifiable Random Functions (VRFs) were first described just over twenty years ago [1], they have recently seen a strong resurgence in popularity due to their usefulness in blockchain applications [2]. This blog post will introduce VRFs in the context of other well-known cryptographic primitives, describe three example use cases,…

By Eric Schorn An introduction to elliptic curve cryptography theory alongside a practical implementation in Erlang. This whitepaper may be downloaded below.

During late January 2020, a hot topic surfaced between security professionals on an issue that has historically had different proposed solutions. This blog post seeks to explore these solutions and identify pragmatic approaches to risk reduction on this specific issue concerning Customer Premises Equipment (CPE) security. Two security researchers (Tom…

In October 2019, the Electric Coin Company engaged NCC Group to conduct a review of two Zcash improvement proposals (ZIP 213 and ZIP 221) and of the implementation of ZIP 208 within the Zcash node implementation. ZIP 213 proposes a change to consensus rules to allow coinbase transactions to target…

Ethereum, a popular cryptocurrency, utilizes a P2P flood network overlay protocol in order to propagate new transactions and state around the network. As has been shown in previous works[^1][^2], observing the propagation of transactions through the peer-to-peer network layer is often enough to deanonymize users of cryptocurrency networks.... Read More

I have been asked about the usefulness of security monitoring of entropy levels in the Linux kernel. This calls for some explanation of how random generation works in Linux systems. So, randomness and the Linux kernel. This is an area where there is longstanding confusion, notably among some Linux kernel…

Editor’s note: This work was also presented at ACM CCS 2019. Written by Keegan Ryan Trusted Execution Environments (TEEs) such as ARM TrustZone are in widespread usein both mobile and embedded devices, and they are used to protect sensitive secretswhile often sharing the same computational hardware as untrusted code. Althoughthere…

Executive Summary In the spring of 2018, The Zerocoin Electric Coin Company engaged NCC Group to perform a two-pronged review of recent changes to the Zcash cryptocurrency. The first prong focused on updates to the Overwinter consensus code, such as architectural changes facilitating future network upgrades, and new features, such as transaction expiry. The second prong…

In this whitepaper*, nine different implementations of TLS were tested against cache attacks and seven were found to be vulnerable: OpenSSL, Amazon s2n, MbedTLS, Apple CoreTLS, Mozilla NSS, WolfSSL, and GnuTLS. The cat remains alive, with two lives left thanks to BearSSL (developed by NCC Group’s Thomas Pornin) and Google’s BoringSSL. The issues were disclosed back in August, and the teams…

From February 26 to March 18, 2018, IronCore Labs engaged NCC Group’s Cryptographic Services Practice to perform a review of their proxy re-encryption protocol and implementation. IronCore’s Proxy re-encryption scheme allows delegation of decryption rights from one entity to another without sharing private keys. IronCore uses this to delegate access…

Abstract Side channels have long been recognised as a threat to the security of cryptographic applications. Implementations can unintentionally leak secret information through many channels, such as microarchitectural state changes in processors, changes in power consumption, or electromagnetic radiation. As a result of these threats, many implementations have been hardened to defend against these…

Vendors affected: Multiple Versions affected: Multiple Author: Keegan Ryan <keegan.ryan[at]nccgroup[dot]trust> <@inf_0_> Advisory URL / CVE Identifier: CVE-2018-0495 Risk: Medium (Key disclosure is possible, but only through certain side channels) Summary We have discovered an implementation flaw in multiple cryptographic libraries that allows a side-channel based attacker to recover ECDSA or…

Transport Layer Security (TLS), commonly called SSL, is one of the most widely used protocols to secure network communications. As costs fall and user security and privacy expectations rise companies are deploying it more widely every year. Attacks against the CA system, SSL implementation flaws and aging protocol versions have…

Correct implementation of SSL is crucial to secure transmission of data between clients and servers. However, this crucial task is frequently done improperly, due to complex APIs and lack of understanding of SSL fundamentals. The SSL Conservatory is intended to be a clearinghouse for well-documented and secure sample code to…

TLSPretense is a framework for testing client-side SSL/TLS certificate validation. Software that uses HTTPS and TLS, such as mobile applications and web service clients, often make mistakes configuring and implementing client-side TLS code. These mistakes are usually severe enough to allow an attacker to intercept the supposedly protected network traffic.…

This is short and quick blog to share with you, as promised, the IDAPython script used to decrypt the strings in the Poison Ivy sample discussed in our previous blog post [1]. Before we can start decrypting the strings, we first need to locate the string decoding function. Looking through Poison Ivy’s…

The objective of this series of papers is to describe the mathematical properties of some of the more common pseudo-random sequence generators and to show how they can be attacked by illustrating the principles with real-world bugs. The series demonstrates how weak randomness can be identified, used to compromise real-world systems, and defended against.…

Following from our recent CISO research council, our research team have put together this whitepaper, which explores encryption at rest. Encryption at rest is not a panacea to data protection due to its complexity and the utility of data. Often, misconceptions can (and do) arise whereby it is believed that…

This post will detail how it is possible to compromise a System Center Operations Manager (SCOM) server and extract the plaintext RunAs credentials from the database. We will also provide tips on how to detect such attacks. What are RunAs credentials? In brief, when creating a SCOM workflow, RunAs profiles…

We’ve released a new tool called Berserko, which is a Burp Suite extension to perform Kerberos authentication. We use Burp Suite for web application security assessments and it gives us excellent results. However, anyone that has experience in pen testing in enterprise environments will be able to tell you that…

Small script to check if the .NET web application is vulnerable to padding Oracle. This script actually verify if the oracle is present and exploitable, not just if the patch has been installed. For more information and to download the tool, visi out GitHub page here.

In September 2016, Matrix, along with financial support from the Open Technology Fund, engaged NCC Group’s Cryptography Services Practice to perform a targeted review of their cryptographic library Olm. The review covered two major components of the Olm library: the double ratchet used for peer-to-peer communications, and Megolm, the group…

In August 2016, Zcash engaged NCC Group to perform a targeted review of the Zcash cryptocurrency implementation. The review was performed in two parts, conducted simultaneously. The first part, performed by the Group’s Cryptography Services practice, focused on validating that Zcash’s implementation adhered to the Zcash Protocol Specification. An assessment…

KGB joke Interrogation of a native Siberian tribesman: Where is the gold? Translator: Where is the gold? Tribesman: Won’t tell! Translator: He won’t tell. KGB interrogator: If you won’t tell, we’ll kill you. Translator: If you won’t tell, they’ll kill you. Tribesman: It’s hidden by the yurt’s entrance. Translator: He…

Organisations that need to keep long-term secrets, or which are designing systems that will be in use for ten or more years, need to plan for a post-quantum-computing world. This whitepaper gives a short introduction and overview of post-quantum cryptography. We discuss why post-quantum crypto is needed and provide handles…

Lately, several backdoors in cryptographic constructions, protocols and implementations have been surfacing in the wild: Dual EC in RSA’s B-Safe product, a modified Dual EC in Juniper Networks’s operating system ScreenOS and a non-prime modulus in the open-source tool socat. Many papers have already discussed the fragility of cryptographic constructions…

Authored by: Tom Ritter Download Whitepaper

Authored by: Shawn Fitzgerald Download whitepaper

Authored by: Shawn Fitzgerald | Pratik Guha Sarkar Download whitepaper

Authored by: Javed Samuel Download whitepaper

Authored by: Tom Ritter Download whitepaper

Cryptography is an underpinning of every organisation’s data security. It is as simple as the correct deployment of TLS and as complicated as bespoke protocols for software updates. This technology is an integral part of an organisation’s security infrastructure. With the field constantly evolving, having a dedicated review is becoming increasingly important. Download…

NCC Group was recently posed the following by one of our UK CISO Research Council members: ‘Blockchain (especially BitCoin) is highly dependent on elliptic curve crypto and hashes like SHA256 and RIPEMD-160, which are all vulnerable to quantum computing attacks using Shaw’s and Grover’s algorithms. The banks are all going…

The first quantum cryptographic exchange occurred in October 1989 at IBM’s Thomas J. Watson Research Centre near New York. Two computers called Alice and Bob successfully negotiated a completely secure channel of communication over a distance of 32 centimetres, making quantum cryptography a reality rather than just a theory. In…

Introduction One of our clients recently approached us for assistance with recovering data from a laptop hard drive which had been encrypted using TrueCrypt. A hardware repair gone wrong had led to problems booting the operating system and a variety of attempted fixes had been unsuccessful. They had already sent…

Previous current event This is a current event and as such this blog post is subject to change over the course of the next couple of days as we perform further supplementary research and analysis. 1.0: Initial version. 1.1: Revised to include further vulnerable software, alpha signature and small clarifications.…